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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Optimisation multiobjectif</span></h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="fr" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="fr" dir="ltr"><p>L'<b>optimisation multiobjectif</b> (appelée aussi <b>Programmation multi-objective</b> ou <b>optimisation multi-critère</b>) est une branche de l'optimisation mathématique traitant spécifiquement des problèmes d'optimisation ayant plusieurs fonctions objectifs. Elle se distingue de l'<a href="Optimisation_multidisciplinaire" title="Optimisation multidisciplinaire">optimisation multidisciplinaire</a> par le fait que les objectifs à optimiser portent ici sur un seul problème.
</p><p>Les problèmes multiobjectifs ont un intérêt grandissant dans l'<a href="Industrie" title="Industrie">industrie</a> où les responsables sont contraints de tenter d'optimiser des objectifs contradictoires. Ces problèmes peuvent être <a href="NP-difficile" title="NP-difficile">NP-difficiles</a>. Leur résolution en des temps raisonnables devient nécessaire et alimente une partie des chercheurs travaillant dans la <a href="Recherche_op%C3%A9rationnelle" title="Recherche opérationnelle">recherche opérationnelle</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Définition"><span id="D.C3.A9finition"></span>Définition</h2></div>
<p>Dans sa forme la plus générale, un problème d'<a href="Optimisation_(math%C3%A9matiques)" title="Optimisation (mathématiques)">optimisation</a> multiobjectif consiste à trouver dans un ensemble de solutions admissibles, un sous-ensemble de solutions minimisant ses objectifs. Le cas de la maximisation peut être traité comme une minimisation après inversion des signes de l'expression à maximiser.
</p><p>Formellement, étant donnés un ensemble de solutions admissibles <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X\subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X\subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4538114b7e232be1bd1d0d774e97f5c43236518a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.975ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X\subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} ^{n}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{p}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} ^{n}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{p}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0b5bd40082ab4c7c39ec507617cb2408f5527472.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.464ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} ^{n}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{p}}" loading="lazy"></span>, les <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span> <i><a href="Fonction_objectif" title="Fonction objectif">fonctions objectif</a></i>, le problème d'optimisation multiobjectif consiste à déterminer&nbsp;:
</p>
<center><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P:\min\{f(x):\,x\in X\}}">
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<mi>P</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P:\min\{f(x):\,x\in X\}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1863d841f3dc56496e7736213311a4cb3e719bf5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.775ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P:\min\{f(x):\,x\in X\}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</center>
<p>L'ensemble des solutions admissibles <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>X</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}" loading="lazy"></span> est appelé région admissible. Une solution <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\in X}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\in X}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3e580967f68f36743e894aa7944f032dda6ea01d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.15ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\in X}" loading="lazy"></span> est également indifféremment dénommée solution réalisable pour le problème <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}" loading="lazy"></span>. On note <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}" loading="lazy"></span> l'image de <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}" loading="lazy"></span> par <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}" loading="lazy"></span> telle que <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \forall y\in Y,\exists x\in X}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \forall y\in Y,\exists x\in X}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1032b0933cf187d8410bb6bb31477f3e5dcb155e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.539ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \forall y\in Y,\exists x\in X}" loading="lazy"></span> tel que <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)=y}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)=y}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0a5080a8b0a963407ea74ffa50702563771518d1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.672ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)=y}" loading="lazy"></span>. Un élément <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y\in Y}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y\in Y}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cee1c0ec36a82f33f5e3d7434d5667881b4ec323.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.769ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y\in Y}" loading="lazy"></span> est appelé point réalisable ou encore point faisable.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optimalité_des_solutions"><span id="Optimalit.C3.A9_des_solutions"></span>Optimalité des solutions</h2></div>
<p>Pour un problème monobjectif, la comparaison de deux solutions lors de la recherche de l'optimum est triviale. La définition d'optimalité est à redéfinir dans un contexte multiobjectif&nbsp;; en effet deux solutions peuvent être incomparables. Par exemple, un problème bi-objectifs ne proposant que deux points réalisables <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (1,2)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (2,1)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f035f80fd643b702206b4e4f9ed87d458a5826af.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.168ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (2,1)}" loading="lazy"></span> d'antécédents distincts ne permet pas d'extraire une solution optimale unique. Il est ainsi nécessaire de laisser à un décideur le verdict final quant au choix de la solution retenue.
</p><p>Deux définitions de l'optimalité sont envisagées&nbsp;: l'optimalité lexicographique, où un ordre sur les objectifs est fixé et l'optimalité de Pareto, basée sur les notions d'efficacité et de non-dominance, où aucun objectif n'est plus important qu'un autre.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimalité_lexicographique"><span id="Optimalit.C3.A9_lexicographique"></span>Optimalité lexicographique</h3></div>
<p>Lorsqu'un ordre de priorité ou de préférences est connu sur les objectifs, le problème est résolu d'une scalarisation par somme pondéré ou en optimisant un à un les objectifs dans l'ordre donné. L'idée est alors d'améliorer l'objectif envisagé sans perdre en qualité sur les objectifs préalablement minimisés.
</p><p>Soient <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>y</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}" loading="lazy"></span> deux solutions distinctes, l'optimalité lexicographique est définie comme suit&nbsp;: si <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)\leq f(y)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)\leq f(y)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ef64a0cfa8c32bf9d3f0549cb5ab1b3f46af5dd4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.759ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)\leq f(y)}" loading="lazy"></span> on pose <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k^{*}=\min \left\{k\;|\;f_{k}(x)\neq f_{k}(y)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">min</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k^{*}=\min \left\{k\;|\;f_{k}(x)\neq f_{k}(y)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/aa9280addc7d4f34c73fd29c6522c5d00204fded.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:28.758ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k^{*}=\min \left\{k\;|\;f_{k}(x)\neq f_{k}(y)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)\leqq _{lex}f(y)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msub>
<mo>≦<!-- ≦ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)\leqq _{lex}f(y)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f99015f57cdcc0bf8998bdd580e5df96501fc4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.188ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)\leqq _{lex}f(y)}" loading="lazy"></span> si, et seulement si, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)=f(y)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)=f(y)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7c45b4d507fbe420cf82e042d6f32f7aed7f8a12.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.759ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)=f(y)}" loading="lazy"></span> ou <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{k^{*}}\left(x\right)<f_{k^{*}}\left(y\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>&lt;</mo>
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{k^{*}}\left(x\right)&lt;f_{k^{*}}\left(y\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ba7bfd02c72e53f69acb1b3728246fd141d7d197.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.095ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{k^{*}}\left(x\right)<f_{k^{*}}\left(y\right)}" loading="lazy"></span>. Cette optimalité lexicographique dépend d'une permutation arbitraire des objectifs. Plusieurs solutions peuvent donc être optimales au sens lexicographique pour le même problème multiobjectifs.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimalité_de_Pareto"><span id="Optimalit.C3.A9_de_Pareto"></span>Optimalité de Pareto</h3></div>
<p>S'il est impossible de connaître a priori un ordre préférence sur les objectifs, de nombreuses solutions deviennent incomparables entre elles. La première référence à traiter d'objectifs conflictuels est fréquemment attribuée à <a href="Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a> en 1896<sup id="cite_ref-:ehrgott_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:ehrgott-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Il définit l'efficacité comme l'impossibilité d'améliorer un objectif de la solution sans dégrader l'intérêt d'un autre objectif. L'importance fondamentale de l'efficacité est basée sur ce constat qu'une solution <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> s'avère inefficace s'il existe une solution qui lui est préférée. Un tel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> ne peut pas représenter une alternative valide pour un décideur<sup id="cite_ref-:ehrgott_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:ehrgott-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p><p>Cette existence de <a href="Relation_d'ordre" title="Relation d'ordre">relation d'ordre</a> entre certaines solutions permet de définir une notion de dominance et résoudre un programme multiobjectif consistera à extraire l'ensemble des points dits non-dominés.
Considérons un problème de minimisation&nbsp;: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle min(f1(x),...,fp(x))}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>.</mo>
<mo>.</mo>
<mo>.</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle min(f1(x),...,fp(x))}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d198e1611aecc9c47f1d30fdf9955a84395cc796.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.384ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle min(f1(x),...,fp(x))}" loading="lazy"></span>, pour <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18d95a7845e4e16ffb7e18ab37a208d0ab18e0e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}" loading="lazy"></span> deux solutions et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/202945cce41ecebb6f643f31d119c514bec7a074.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f51fe35e33650745a2cf8164001611ad67ec53d5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}" loading="lazy"></span> les points qui leur correspondent on a&nbsp;:
</p>
<ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f51fe35e33650745a2cf8164001611ad67ec53d5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}" loading="lazy"></span> <b>domine</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/202945cce41ecebb6f643f31d119c514bec7a074.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> <b>strictement</b> (aussi dit au sens fort) noté <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})<f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>&lt;</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})&lt;f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66395334ff46e5322a284c1bda843fce6b90a28c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.934ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})<f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> si, et seulement si, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{i}({\hat {x}})<f_{i}(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>&lt;</mo>
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{i}({\hat {x}})&lt;f_{i}(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/22739ec4dae35e77dc9225f8c934a1eaad056267.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.254ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{i}({\hat {x}})<f_{i}(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \forall i}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∀<!-- ∀ --></mi>
<mi>i</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \forall i}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2103e051e11fb08eb1a55758a7e1be5c0f518753.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.095ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \forall i}" loading="lazy"></span>&nbsp;;</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f51fe35e33650745a2cf8164001611ad67ec53d5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}" loading="lazy"></span> <b>domine faiblement</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/202945cce41ecebb6f643f31d119c514bec7a074.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> noté <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leqq f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≦<!-- ≦ --></mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leqq f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/15b058398aab53032d5cdfc97e40797e5e6f2372.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.934ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leqq f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> si, et seulement si, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{i}({\hat {x}})\leq f_{i}(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>f</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{i}({\hat {x}})\leq f_{i}(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ed134eacb5b3da2d17357eac778e0dac00a3e86b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.254ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{i}({\hat {x}})\leq f_{i}(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \forall i}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∀<!-- ∀ --></mi>
<mi>i</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \forall i}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2103e051e11fb08eb1a55758a7e1be5c0f518753.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.095ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \forall i}" loading="lazy"></span>&nbsp;;</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f51fe35e33650745a2cf8164001611ad67ec53d5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})}" loading="lazy"></span> <b>domine</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/202945cce41ecebb6f643f31d119c514bec7a074.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.418ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> noté <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leq f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leq f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c77e8ba822e5d7c1eda400768a9296dee9741b03.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.934ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leq f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> si, et seulement si, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leqq f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≦<!-- ≦ --></mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leqq f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/15b058398aab53032d5cdfc97e40797e5e6f2372.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.934ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\leqq f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\neq f(x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\neq f(x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/25b4f290cdbec1baa76ab4b24e19d63885cba7d9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.934ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\hat {x}})\neq f(x)}" loading="lazy"></span>.</li></ul>
<p>On parle de dominance dans l'espace des objectifs mais cette notion est aussi étendue à la notion d'efficacité dans l'espace de décision:
</p>
<ul><li>Si <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \not \exists x\in X:f(x)<f({\hat {x}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∄</mi>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mi>X</mi>
<mo>:</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>&lt;</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \not \exists x\in X:f(x)&lt;f({\hat {x}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/590f0f6c6fe91e8fa3e0bd55393d8a2d94b3436f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.19ex; width:21.505ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \not \exists x\in X:f(x)<f({\hat {x}})}" loading="lazy"></span> on dit que <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18d95a7845e4e16ffb7e18ab37a208d0ab18e0e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}" loading="lazy"></span> est <b>faiblement efficace</b> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3dc8de3d8ea01304329ef9518fad7a6d196c4c01.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.302ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}}" loading="lazy"></span> est <b>faiblement non-dominée</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\hat {y}}=f({\hat {x}}))}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\hat {y}}=f({\hat {x}}))}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/24f71a27562d6731b88d608a5619b4b62b1e28f3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\hat {y}}=f({\hat {x}}))}" loading="lazy"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li>Si <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \not \exists x\in X:f(x)\leq f({\hat {x}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∄</mi>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mi>X</mi>
<mo>:</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \not \exists x\in X:f(x)\leq f({\hat {x}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47a76c0d166452e09d308fe547a7555b3f7b953c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.19ex; width:21.505ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \not \exists x\in X:f(x)\leq f({\hat {x}})}" loading="lazy"></span> on dit que <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18d95a7845e4e16ffb7e18ab37a208d0ab18e0e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}" loading="lazy"></span> est <b>efficace</b> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3dc8de3d8ea01304329ef9518fad7a6d196c4c01.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.302ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}}" loading="lazy"></span> est <b>non-dominée</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\hat {y}}=f({\hat {x}}))}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\hat {y}}=f({\hat {x}}))}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/24f71a27562d6731b88d608a5619b4b62b1e28f3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\hat {y}}=f({\hat {x}}))}" loading="lazy"></span></li></ul>
<p>Une solution est dite faiblement efficace si le point correspondant est faiblement non-dominé, c'est-à-dire s'il n'existe aucune autre solution qui la domine au sens fort. Elle est dite efficace si le point correspondant est non-dominé, (aucune autre solution ne la domine). L'ensemble <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y_{N}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>N</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y_{N}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ed83fde2e1af75da8413e380b59b7fcf78763e97.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.042ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y_{N}}" loading="lazy"></span> l'image des solutions efficaces par <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}" loading="lazy"></span> d'un problème forme dans l'espace objectif une <a href="Optimum_de_Pareto" title="Optimum de Pareto">frontière de Pareto</a>. Notons que <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{E}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>E</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{E}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8d33a198c2c915ad0c00b3e0dfa1bf14be59f0a1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.412ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{E}}" loading="lazy"></span> telle que <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(X_{E})=Y_{N}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>E</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>N</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(X_{E})=Y_{N}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbdf634c8defae5b9cd8c8e9b4b549a65cf047f8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.64ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(X_{E})=Y_{N}}" loading="lazy"></span> est un sous-ensemble de l'ensemble <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(X_{wE})=Y_{wN}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>w</mi>
<mi>E</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>w</mi>
<mi>N</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(X_{wE})=Y_{wN}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d905d10b523ef421bac8254450995010b59555f9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.994ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(X_{wE})=Y_{wN}}" loading="lazy"></span> des solutions faiblement efficaces.
Les solutions optimales au sens lexicographiques sont des solutions efficaces.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ensembles_de_solutions">Ensembles de solutions</h2></div>
<p>L'ensemble des solutions efficaces peut être partitionné en deux ensembles. Le premier contient les solutions dites <b>supportées</b> dont le point image se situe sur la fermeture convexe de la région admissible&nbsp;; on peut les trouver en résolvant des combinaisons linéaires des objectifs. Le second ensemble contient les solutions <b>non supportées</b> plus complexes à trouver. Elles ne sont pas sur la fermeture convexe, mais ne sont pas dominées pour autant.
</p><p>Deux solutions admissibles peuvent correspondre à un même point réalisable efficace. Il convient alors de définir l'<b>ensemble de solutions complet minimal</b> qui ne contient qu'une seule solution pour chaque point non dominé dans l'espace des objectifs et l'<b>ensemble des solutions complet maximal</b> contenant toutes les solutions équivalentes pour chaque point non dominé dans l'espace des objectifs. L'interêt du premier est de restreindre l'ensemble construit et donc le coût de recherche tout en atteignant tous les points efficaces. L'ensemble maximal permettra à une <a href="Cha%C3%AEne_de_production" title="Chaîne de production">chaîne de production</a> par exemple de disposer de plusieurs solutions de secours pour un plan de production validé.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scalarisation">Scalarisation</h2></div>
<p>Scalariser un problème d'optimisation multi-objectif est une méthode qui consiste à formuler un problème d'optimisation mono-objectif et de le résoudre à plusieurs reprises en faisant varier ses paramètres. Les méthodes de scalarisation cherchent à vérifier les propriétés de justesse et de complétude. La justesse assure que les solutions optimales du problème mono-objectif soient des solutions (faiblement) efficaces pour le problème multi-objectif considéré. La complétude garantie d'atteindre toutes les solutions efficaces du problème multi-objectif en ajustant les valeurs des paramètres appropriés.
</p><p>Par alors, une formulation générale des méthodes de scalarisation est&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}\min &amp;g(z_{1}(x),\ldots ,z_{k}(x),\theta )\\{\text{s.t }}x\in X_{\theta },\end{array}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">min</mo>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>g</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>s.t&nbsp;</mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}\min &amp;g(z_{1}(x),\ldots ,z_{k}(x),\theta )\\{\text{s.t }}x\in X_{\theta },\end{array}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ef7e1ea847a68b5bde2306fb3e058711c47cc5d7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:34.678ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}\min &amp;g(z_{1}(x),\ldots ,z_{k}(x),\theta )\\{\text{s.t }}x\in X_{\theta },\end{array}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>où <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6e5ab2664b422d53eb0c7df3b87e1360d75ad9af.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta }" loading="lazy"></span> est un vecteur paramètre, l'ensemble <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{\theta }\subseteq X}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>⊆<!-- ⊆ --></mo>
<mi>X</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{\theta }\subseteq X}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fe0b78f193d8e5765bced2d69050a834c264d247.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.006ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{\theta }\subseteq X}" loading="lazy"></span> est un ensemble dépendant du paramètre <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6e5ab2664b422d53eb0c7df3b87e1360d75ad9af.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta }" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g:\mathbb {R} ^{k+1}\mapsto \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
<mo>:</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">↦<!-- ↦ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g:\mathbb {R} ^{k+1}\mapsto \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f940b5c75037cb0b897691f07fd310516c6c15fa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.213ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g:\mathbb {R} ^{k+1}\mapsto \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> est une nouvelle fonction objectif.
</p><p>Quelques exemples&nbsp;:
</p>
<ul><li><b>scalarisation linéaire</b></li></ul>
<dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \min _{x\in X}\sum _{i=1}^{k}w_{i}z_{i}(x),}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<munder>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">min</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</munder>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<msub>
<mi>w</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \min _{x\in X}\sum _{i=1}^{k}w_{i}z_{i}(x),}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cdd91d4b130a281e70b1eaf689ed2e85766c7c3c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:16.135ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \min _{x\in X}\sum _{i=1}^{k}w_{i}z_{i}(x),}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl></dd>
<dd>où les poids des objectifs <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w_{i}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>w</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w_{i}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fe22f0329d3ecb2e1880d44d191aba0e5475db68.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.464ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w_{i}}" loading="lazy"></span> sont positifs et non tous nuls. Ces poids sont les paramètres de la scalarisation&nbsp;;</dd></dl>
<ul><li><b>méthode <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ϵ<!-- ϵ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3837cad72483d97bcdde49c85d3b7b859fb3fd2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.944ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \epsilon }" loading="lazy"></span>-contrainte</b></li></ul>
<dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}\min &amp;z_{j}(x)\\{\text{s.t. }}&amp;x\in X\\&amp;z_{i}(x)\leq \epsilon _{j}{\text{ for }}i\in \{1,\ldots ,k\}\setminus \{j\},\end{array}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">min</mo>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>s.t.&nbsp;</mtext>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mi>X</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd></mtd>
<mtd>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>ϵ<!-- ϵ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>&nbsp;for&nbsp;</mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo class="MJX-variant">∖<!-- ∖ --></mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}\min &amp;z_{j}(x)\\{\text{s.t. }}&amp;x\in X\\&amp;z_{i}(x)\leq \epsilon _{j}{\text{ for }}i\in \{1,\ldots ,k\}\setminus \{j\},\end{array}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6fd6d9593cafa8c685c240970186151dfac03d61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.338ex; width:40.513ex; height:9.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}\min &amp;z_{j}(x)\\{\text{s.t. }}&amp;x\in X\\&amp;z_{i}(x)\leq \epsilon _{j}{\text{ for }}i\in \{1,\ldots ,k\}\setminus \{j\},\end{array}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl></dd>
<dd>où les bornes supérieures <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon _{j}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ϵ<!-- ϵ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon _{j}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e1d007888875e2294ff7ef04b13349b27ec46e5a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:1.854ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \epsilon _{j}}" loading="lazy"></span> sont les paramètres de la scalarisation et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{j}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{j}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/412a06424b2eeb1f51d963bc33fb3bd5c3df5f49.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:1.991ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{j}}" loading="lazy"></span> l'objectif à minimiser.</dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Algorithmes_évolutionnaires_multi-objectifs"><span id="Algorithmes_.C3.A9volutionnaires_multi-objectifs"></span>Algorithmes évolutionnaires multi-objectifs</h2></div>
<p>Les <a href="Algorithmes_%C3%A9volutionnistes" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithmes évolutionnistes">Algorithmes évolutionnistes</a> permettent d'obtenir le front de Pareto ou une approximation du front de Pareto. Le principal avantage des algorithmes évolutionnaires appliqués à la résolution de problèmes d'optimisation multi-objectifs, est le fait qu'ils génèrent généralement des ensembles de solutions, permettant le calcul d'une approximation de l'ensemble du front de Pareto. Le principal inconvénient des algorithmes évolutifs est leur vitesse inférieure et surtout que l'optimalité de Pareto des solutions ne peut être garantie. L'algorithme détermine uniquement le front de Pareto de l'ensemble des solutions évalués au cours de l’exécution. Les algorithmes évolutionnaires tels que le «Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II» (NSGA-II)<sup id="cite_ref-doi10.1109/4235.996017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi10.1109/4235.996017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> et le «Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm 2» (SPEA-2)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sont devenus des approches standard. Une autre approche populaire est le «Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithm Based on Decomposition» (MOEA/D)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> qui décompose un problème multi-objectif en un ensemble de problèmes mono-objectifs étant donné un ensemble de vecteurs et d'une fonction d’agrégation. Les problèmes mono-objectifs sont ensuite résolus en parallèle et s'entraident les uns les autres.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Comparaisons_par_paires" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparaisons par paires">Comparaisons par paires</a></li>
<li><a href="ELECTRE" title="ELECTRE">ELECTRE</a>&nbsp;: méthode non compensatoire, <b>EL</b>imination <b>E</b>t <b>C</b>hoix <b>T</b>raduisant la <b>RE</b>alité</li>
<li><a href="Matrice_de_compatibilit%C3%A9" title="Matrice de compatibilité">Matrice de compatibilité</a></li>
<li><a href="Optimisation_combinatoire" title="Optimisation combinatoire">Optimisation discrète</a></li>
<li><a href="Preference_ranking_organization_method_for_enrichment_evaluation" title="Preference ranking organization method for enrichment evaluation">PROMETHEE</a>&nbsp;: "Preference Ranking Organisation METHod for Enrichment Evaluations".</li>
<li><a href="Th%C3%A9orie_de_la_d%C3%A9cision" title="Théorie de la décision">Théorie de la décision</a>&nbsp;: <a href="Math%C3%A9matiques" title="Mathématiques">mathématiques</a> pour l'aide à la prise de décisions</li></ul>
<p><br>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Références"><span id="R.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Références</h2></div>
<ul><li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé <span class="">«&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-objective_optimization" class="extiw external" title="en:Multi-objective optimization">Multi-objective_optimization</a>&nbsp;» <small>(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-objective_optimization?action=history">voir la liste des auteurs</a>)</small></span>.</li></ul>
<div class="references-small decimal" style=""><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-:ehrgott-1"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ehrgott2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="Matthias_Ehrgott2005"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Matthias <span class="nom_auteur">Ehrgott</span>, <cite class="italique" lang="en">Multicriteria Optimization</cite>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr>&nbsp;1, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, <time>2005</time><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Multicriteria+Optimization&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag%2C+Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.aulast=Ehrgott&amp;rft.aufirst=Matthias&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AOptimisation+multiobjectif"></span></span></span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-doi10.1109/4235.996017-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-doi10.1109/4235.996017_2-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="DebPratapAgarwalMeyarivan2002"><span class="ouvrage" id="K._DebA._PratapS._AgarwalT._Meyarivan2002">K. <span class="nom_auteur">Deb</span>, A. <span class="nom_auteur">Pratap</span>, S. <span class="nom_auteur">Agarwal</span> et T. <span class="nom_auteur">Meyarivan</span>, «&nbsp;<cite style="font-style:normal">A fast and elitist multiobjective genetic algorithm: NSGA-II</cite>&nbsp;», <i>IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr>&nbsp;6, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr>&nbsp;2,‎ <time>2002</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr>&nbsp;182 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a>&nbsp;<span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/4235.996017">10.1109/4235.996017</a></span>, <a href="CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX">CiteSeer<sup>x</sup></a>&nbsp;<span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.17.7771">10.1.1.17.7771</a></span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+fast+and+elitist+multiobjective+genetic+algorithm%3A+NSGA-II&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Evolutionary+Computation&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.aulast=Deb&amp;rft.aufirst=K.&amp;rft.au=Pratap%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Agarwal%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Meyarivan%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=182&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F4235.996017&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AOptimisation+multiobjectif"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Zitzler, E., Laumanns, M., Thiele, L.: SPEA2: Improving the Performance of the Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm, Technical Report 103, Computer Engineering and Communication Networks Lab (TIK), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.tik.ee.ethz.ch/publications/?db=publications&amp;form=report_single_publication&amp;publication_id=1319">[1]</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Qingfu_ZhangHui_Li2007"><span class="nom_auteur">Qingfu Zhang</span> et <span class="nom_auteur">Hui Li</span>, «&nbsp;<cite style="font-style:normal">MOEA/D: A Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithm Based on Decomposition</cite>&nbsp;», <i>IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr>&nbsp;11, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr>&nbsp;6,‎ <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-12" data-sort-value="2007-12">décembre 2007</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr>&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">712–731</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&nbsp;<span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1941-0026">1941-0026</a></span> et <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1089-778X">1089-778X</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a>&nbsp;<span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TEVC.2007.892759">10.1109/TEVC.2007.892759</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4358754/">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2022-04-25" data-sort-value="2022-04-25">25 avril 2022</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=MOEA%2FD%3A+A+Multiobjective+Evolutionary+Algorithm+Based+on+Decomposition&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Evolutionary+Computation&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.aulast=Qingfu+Zhang&amp;rft.au=Hui+Li&amp;rft.date=2007-12&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=712%E2%80%93731&amp;rft.issn=1941-0026&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTEVC.2007.892759&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AOptimisation+multiobjectif"></span></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
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